The 19th century German physicist Heinrich Hertz once described his feeling that James Clerk Maxwell’s equations, which depict the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism, “have an independent existence and an intelligence of their own, that they are wiser … even than their discoverers, that we get more out of them than was originally put into them.”
Not long after, Albert Einstein called Niels Bohr’s atomic model “the highest form of musicality in the sphere of thought.”
More recently, the late US Nobel laureate Richard Feynman, describing his discovery of new laws of physics, said: “You can recognize truth by its beauty and simplicity.”
Similar sentiments are all but universal among modern physicists.
Wishful thinking could never produce working iPhones, photographs of Pluto, or atomic bombs. Physics, as summarized in a handful of mathematically precise laws, indisputably works. Yet many things that “work” do not inspire the kind of admiration that the fundamental laws of nature do.
Their beauty is rooted, first, in the laws’ symmetry, here meaning the possibility of change without change — a precise yet almost mystical concept. Just as a circle can be rotated about its center at any angle, changing the position of each of its points without changing its form, symmetric laws apply to changed situations without changing or losing validity.
For example, special relativity asserts that the fundamental laws of physics remain the same when we view the world from a platform moving at constant velocity. Similarly, so-called time translation symmetry encodes the uniformity of physical law in time: Even as the universe ages, the laws remain the same.
The second source of beauty in the laws of physics is their productivity — what I call their exuberance. Just a handful of basic principles generates an astonishing wealth of consequences — everything in the physical world. You can write the equations of the core theories of physics — known as the standard model — quite comfortably on a T-shirt. To paraphrase Hertz, they give back far more than we put in.
It is important to say that the laws of physics need not necessarily have such marvelous properties. Consider this hypothetical situation: Developments in computer power, virtual reality and artificial intelligence enable the creation of self-aware beings whose “world” is, from our perspective, a programmed simulation. If a self-aware Super Mario began to analyze the laws of his world, he would find very little symmetry or productivity. Instead, he would find a vast collection of loosely connected, quirky rules, reflecting the whims of the programmer.
The beauty of physical law is too impressive to be accidental. It has led people, throughout history, to believe that some tasteful higher being created them and that they inhabit a consciously designed world, like Super Mario, but this is an extravagant hypothesis, which goes far beyond the facts it is meant to explain. Before adopting it, it is important to explore more economical alternatives.
The answer likely lies within people. Beautiful things are those in which people find pleasure and seek out. They are, in neurobiological terms, things that stimulate one’s reward system. That explains why parents tend to find their young children beautiful, and why adults are attracted to nubile models and their images. It makes evolutionary sense to reward such feelings.
The evolutionary utility of the beauty of physical laws is somewhat less obvious, but no less real. Given the usefulness of accurately assessing the consequences of actions, people’s reward systems have evolved so that they derive joy from making successful predictions. Understanding the forces and patterns defining the world, and especially principles that apply — without changing — to a wide variety of situations, can help to improve predictions.
That people can often infer the behavior of complex objects or systems from knowledge of their parts — that they get back more than we put in — can help them to hone predictions further.
In short, because evolution predisposes people to find beautiful those things that help them understand the world correctly, it is no accident that they find the correct laws of nature beautiful. Viewed from this perspective, the apparent beauty of the laws of physics — people’s attraction to their symmetry and exuberance — is not surprising.
What remains mysterious is why they are comprehensible. A profound link between beauty and comprehensibility is an increasingly important source of scientific progress. Today’s frontiers of fundamental physics are far removed from everyday experience. They are difficult and expensive to access experimentally, and people cannot rely on their intuition to fill in the blanks. The patient accumulation of fact recommended by Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton and Sherlock Holmes is thus no longer practical.
Instead, people reverse the process, using guesswork to motivate experiment. First, people construct beautiful equations, then derive their consequences and, finally, craft experiments to test them. In recent decades, that strategy has proved remarkably successful. It has given birth to quantum chromodynamics, which resolves the central problem of nuclear physics, as well as predicting the Higgs particle and much else.
Rather than recognizing the beauty of laws otherwise discovered, people use principles of beauty — vast symmetry and a high ratio of output to input — to enable discovery. When this works, there exists an “anthropic” explanation of the laws’ beauty: If they were not beautiful, they would not have been found.
Frank Wilczek, a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004.
Copyright: Project Syndicate
Why is Chinese President Xi Jinping (習近平) not a “happy camper” these days regarding Taiwan? Taiwanese have not become more “CCP friendly” in response to the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) use of spies and graft by the United Front Work Department, intimidation conducted by the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and the Armed Police/Coast Guard, and endless subversive political warfare measures, including cyber-attacks, economic coercion, and diplomatic isolation. The percentage of Taiwanese that prefer the status quo or prefer moving towards independence continues to rise — 76 percent as of December last year. According to National Chengchi University (NCCU) polling, the Taiwanese
It would be absurd to claim to see a silver lining behind every US President Donald Trump cloud. Those clouds are too many, too dark and too dangerous. All the same, viewed from a domestic political perspective, there is a clear emerging UK upside to Trump’s efforts at crashing the post-Cold War order. It might even get a boost from Thursday’s Washington visit by British Prime Minister Keir Starmer. In July last year, when Starmer became prime minister, the Labour Party was rigidly on the defensive about Europe. Brexit was seen as an electorally unstable issue for a party whose priority
US President Donald Trump is systematically dismantling the network of multilateral institutions, organizations and agreements that have helped prevent a third world war for more than 70 years. Yet many governments are twisting themselves into knots trying to downplay his actions, insisting that things are not as they seem and that even if they are, confronting the menace in the White House simply is not an option. Disagreement must be carefully disguised to avoid provoking his wrath. For the British political establishment, the convenient excuse is the need to preserve the UK’s “special relationship” with the US. Following their White House
US President Donald Trump’s return to the White House has brought renewed scrutiny to the Taiwan-US semiconductor relationship with his claim that Taiwan “stole” the US chip business and threats of 100 percent tariffs on foreign-made processors. For Taiwanese and industry leaders, understanding those developments in their full context is crucial while maintaining a clear vision of Taiwan’s role in the global technology ecosystem. The assertion that Taiwan “stole” the US’ semiconductor industry fundamentally misunderstands the evolution of global technology manufacturing. Over the past four decades, Taiwan’s semiconductor industry, led by Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co (TSMC), has grown through legitimate means
RSS